Moscow, MSU Publishing House, 1983, 303 p.

Publication of a new book by Prof. MSU Doctor of Historical Sciences L. M. Bragina fills a significant gap in the understanding of Italian humanism, in the assessments of which there is still a lot of controversy. In bourgeois historiography, there is a growing tendency to link the worldview of humanists with medieval ideas, to look for conservative and even reactionary ideas in humanism, or to single out as defining features that do not make it possible to understand its true essence. Soviet historians did not agree on everything either. While they oppose the "medievalization" of humanism and link its origin to the genesis of early bourgeois relations, they have different opinions about the nature of this movement, its chronological framework and periodization. Many problems of the Italian Renaissance still await serious study. One of the poorly developed issues in both Soviet and foreign historiography was the question of the social and ethical concepts of humanists. Meanwhile, the formation of a worldview that is opposed to the church-theological one began, as we know, first of all, with the development of a new view of a person, his role in society, morals and norms of behavior. It was "moral philosophy" that was in the center of attention of advanced thinkers of the XIV-XV centuries, closely intertwined with other humanities - history, politics, pedagogy, rhetoric, philology.

The researcher identifies the social and ethical theories of Italy in the second half of the 15th century as an independent stage in the history of humanistic social thought and for the first time in historiography sets out to consider its specifics (p. 8). Unlike bourgeois historians, she emphasizes the social significance of humanism, considering it as the main ideological content of Renaissance culture, inseparable from the entire course of historical development Italy. The humanist worldview was certainly progressive, since it was based on the doctrine of man, his place in nature and society. The author emphasizes the anti-dogmatic, rationalistic nature of humanism, its role in the development of humanism.

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establishment of secular culture, development of philosophy and science (p. 6). The author notes the importance of the ancient heritage, mastered and reworked by humanists in their own way.

The reviewed work is characterized by a view of humanism as a polysyllabic phenomenon consisting of various ideological trends. This distinguishes L. M. Bragina's research favorably from the works, including Soviet ones, in which, according to the tradition that goes back to J. Burkhardt, humanism is presented as something monolithic. Exploring the differentiation of humanistic thought, the author focuses on the characteristics and social essence of the three most important trends: civic humanism, the theories of the Florentine Neo-Platonists, and the social and ethical teachings of Leon Battista Alberti. It was in the second half of the 15th century, writes L. M. Bragina, that the humanists ' teaching about man "became conceptually complete" and their socio-ethical ideas were widely developed (p. 7).

The range of sources used by the author is significant. These are the works of prominent 15th-century humanists such as Matteo Palmieri, Alamanno Rinuccini, Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Leon Battista Alberti, Cristoforo Landino, and Giovanni Nezi. Among the sources are speeches made by Florentine magistrates upon taking office. A large part of the documents are manuscripts from the archives of Florence. Some of them were not previously the subject of special study.

The author has created a coherent concept of the role of civil humanism in Florence in the 40s-80s. L. M. Bragina emphasizes the critical orientation of the social ethics of Florentine thinkers. In this regard, the pages devoted to Palmieri, whose views are still poorly researched, are of particular interest. Palmieri discovered an understanding of the discrepancy between humanistic ideals and reality and condemned private property as the basis of social injustice. L. M. Bragina sees in him one of the predecessors of Thomas More, but notes that Palmieri seeks a way out not in the socialization of property, but only in the moral improvement of man (p. 56-57). A detailed analysis of Rinuccini's views and his "Dialogue on Freedom" concludes with the conclusion that this humanist's thoughts are closely connected with the political struggle in Florence in the 15th century for the strengthening of the republic (pp. 112-113). The conclusion about the influence of humanistic ideals on public life is also confirmed by the speeches of magistrates, which indicate the perception of these ideals by those political figures who did not belong to the circle of humanists.

L. M. Bragina highly appreciates the humanistic views of Leon Battista Alberti, whom she considers a representative of a special trend in Italian humanism of the 15th century. A careful study of his writings led the author to believe that Alberti created an original and most consistent humanist doctrine in his principles. In his ethics, the ideas of citizenship were combined with elements of some other areas of humanism. According to L. M. Bragina, it was in Alberti's work that humanistic thought reached its maturity. She sees the historical significance of his ethics in consistent secularism, a high appreciation of the creative forces of man - the creator of his own happiness. Alberti appealed not to faith, but to reason, which was a direct challenge to Catholic morality (p. 172).

Clerical historians ' judgments about the crisis of Italian humanism that allegedly took place in the last third of the 15th century, about the departure of humanists from their previous principles, and about the interweaving of neo - Platonism with Christian ideology in their works are usually based on a biased interpretation of the works of Florentine members of the Platonic Academy. Noting that one of the features of the humanist movements of the second half of the 15th century was the revival of interest in Plato and his followers, as well as in theological problems, she explains this by the humanists ' attempt to find a relationship between philosophy and theology, their bold invasion of the latter, as a result of which the problem of reason became even more relevant, (pp. 253-254).

A prominent place in the monograph is devoted to the characterization of the views of Marsilio Ficino. Polemicizing with historians who tried to "mediate" his worldview, to find deep religiosity in him, L. M. Bragina emphasizes a certain originality of Ficino's doctrine and its natural philosophical character. The humanist exalts man "as a god on Earth", people, in his view, are destined for great things

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cases (p. 192, 204). The monograph pays special attention to the development of these propositions by Ficino's followers.

L. M. Bragina also comes to a different conclusion from clerical historians as a result of analyzing the moral philosophy of one of the greatest thinkers of the XV century, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Without denying the influence of religious mysticism on him, the researcher at the same time proves that the humanist was, in fact, under the influence of many different ideological trends. Pico proclaimed the right to free thought, he considered it necessary to study all philosophical schools, without which it is impossible to create your own. L. M. Bragina emphasizes the pantheistic character of his philosophy and considers the doctrine of man - "the creator of himself", "the center of the world", "the connecting link" - to be the central part of his doctrine (p.243). Recognizing the role of theology in knowledge, the Florentine neo-Platonist nevertheless considered philosophy to be the main creative force. He transformed it from a profession "into a selfless search for truth", which is capable not only of the chosen, but also of all people. The author traces the influence of the works of this humanist on the development of Renaissance thought in the subsequent period.

Drawing particular attention to the differences between the trends in humanism of the 15th century, the author notes at the same time that they were united: the existence of "a single core, totality, and proper humanistic ideas" (p.280). Advanced thinkers of the second half of the 15th century not only summed up the evolution of the humanistic theory of the previous period, but also contributed to its further development. This was manifested in the awakening of individual consciousness, confidence in the possibility of creating a human kingdom on Earth, which played an important role in the fight against the feudal worldview. As for the social ethics of civil humanism in the second half of the 15th century, it " reflected," the author emphasizes, "the historical optimism of the ideas of the Italian Renaissance and at the same time their inevitable, time - bound limitations" (p.275).

L. M. Bragina's work deals not only with purely ethical views, but also thoroughly studies the philosophical socio-political theories of that time, which makes it possible to better understand the nature and character of the entire humanist movement and directly leads to the study of the ideology of the XVI century. Of course, not all the problems posed in the book are solved. The topic of social ethics of humanism is so extensive that it cannot be exhausted in one study. Highlighting the main trends in Italian humanism, L. M. Bragina leaves aside its other trends and only briefly mentions the influence of the hedonistic-utilitarian concept, dating back to Lorenzo Valle, and Epicurean sentiments, believing that the latter did not receive much development in the second half of the XV century. Meanwhile, in reality, they still found adherents in certain circles, revived in the works of writers who labored at the princely courts and the papal curia. Studying this phenomenon, of course, would add to the overall picture of the development of Renaissance ideology.

L. M. Bragina focused her attention on social and ethical doctrines that more or less reflected the sentiments of the upper and middle strata of the Popolans (with whom the early bourgeoisie was also fused). And this is quite justified, since it was from this environment that a powerful anti-feudal protest came. However, simultaneously with the increasing differentiation of humanism, there was also an expansion of its social base, new ideas penetrated the environment of the ruling class, they were perceived even by large hierarchies of the church, at the same time, humanistic ideals had a certain impact on the world perception of the masses. The question of the attitude of humanists to the people and their class limitations deserves special consideration, as L. M. Bragina's research says succinctly. The theme of the influence of changes in the political structure of Italian states, the transition from the republican system of communes to the sole dictatorships of seigniories and regional principalities on the ideals of humanists and their moral philosophy is also worthy of special attention.

It should also be noted that the reviewed monograph is based mainly on Florentine, albeit very important, but still limited by the local framework of the material. The conclusion about the undoubted impact of the social and ethical theories of the Florentine humanists on the development of public consciousness in other areas of the Apennine Peninsula needs, in our opinion, serious confirmation and special study of the nature and forms of the humanist movement, in particular:

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cultural centers like Venice. Rome, Ferrara, Milan, Naples, etc., which had their own specifics.

The author of the book touches upon the question of the birth of a social utopia in 15th-century Italy (Palmiern, partly Alberti). In foreign historical science, the fact of the emergence of humanistic utopias has been noticed for a long time, but the ideal cities depicted by Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Antonio Averlino, Francesco di Giorgio Martini and others are usually interpreted as purely architectural compositions devoid of social meaning. This well-established opinion probably requires careful verification.

Equally important is a special study of the role of Italian humanists in the development of pre-reformation ideas. The study of this problem in our country was successfully initiated by L. M. Bratina with the analysis of Nezi's work. It should be noted, however, that" heretical" beliefs were characteristic not only of Savonarola's supporters and members of religious fraternities, but also of other heroes of L. M. Bragina's book.It is not by chance that Palmieri's poem" The City of Life " was condemned by the church and not allowed to be published.

Specialists would also be interested in detailed textual comparisons of the works of Italian humanists with the works of ancient thinkers, which would allow us to more specifically identify the depth of the latter's impact on the ethical and social concepts of the Renaissance. After all, in the practice of that time, simple paraphrasing and even verbatim borrowing from Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, etc.were no exception.

I think that all these questions are legitimate. We put them forward not at all as a reproach to the author, but, on the contrary, in an effort to emphasize the merits of the book: it leads to reflection, suggests new problems and topics that deserve special study. As for the reproaches, L. M. Bragina can be presented, perhaps, one-in such a great passion for the topic that it sometimes leads to a certain idealization of her characters. Although, let's be fair, she constantly notes the contradictory nature of their work.

In general, we have a significant study that introduces an important, insufficiently studied stage in the development of public morality, based on new and sometimes inaccessible sources, which are given a new interpretation. It will undoubtedly attract the attention of not only specialists, but also a wide range of readers who want to learn more about the Renaissance culture.

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